Presbyterian Schools in T&T By Jerome Teelucksingh Excellence in Presbyterian Primary schools and the transition to Secondary education During the Depression years in North America and the World Wars, funding from the Presbyterian Church of Canada was limited and the missionaries in Trinidad (as in other foreign missionary settlements) had to utilize their resourcefulness and demonstrate self-sufficiency. Financial assistance from the planters began to gradually decline as fluctuating sugar prices played havoc on profits. These economic, social and political changes had profound effects on the development and direction of colonial education during the period 1910-1950. Amidst these changes, the Presbyterian Church and its mission schools were flexible and willing to accept the challenge of a society in transition. In the previous decades, a foundation in Presbyterian education had been laid and it would be periodically tested in the first half of the twentieth century. Among the Presbyterians, their primary and secondary schools were able to maintain their exemplary performance during these decades. In the post-1920 period, the enrollment among Presbyterian schools increased by 5,000 for every decade till the 1950s. During the years 1910-1925, the Canadian Mission schools had undertaken the mammoth task of providing quality education armed with a diverse curriculum. This objective was evident in the organized garden competitions. A simple biological competition involving the collection and classification of insects later developed into an island wide inter-school garden competition. Both government and denominational schools competed during the early years and the victories of the Presbyterian schools in the agricultural competition became a regular feature. The Madoo Gold Medal, in memory of Egbert Madoo, a Presbyterian who was a Government school teacher, was awarded for General Proficiency by the Trinidad and Tobago Teachers' Union. One of the reasons for the superb performance of the schools was the quality of leadership. A consistent winner in extra-curricular activities was Jordan Hill Presbyterian Primary School under the leadership of Head-teacher Andrew Goberdhan. He was a graduate of Tabaquite CMI and former principal of Riversdale CMI. Under Goberdhan's leadership, Jordan Hill won the coveted Agriculture Shield for the best school garden in 1931, 1932 and 1933. This success continued at Jordan Hill and the school was awarded the Madoo Efficiency Gold Medal in 1934, 1935 and 1940; adding to its collection was the Grier Hand Work Shield for handicraft won in three consecutive years, 1941, 1942 and 1943. These achievements outside the academic sphere were indications of a flexible curriculum in the Presbyterian primary schools. Charles W. Debysingh, a former pupil of Warrenville CMI was another remarkable leader in education. After a short stint as principal of Warrenville CMI, Debysingh was posted to Tacarigua CMI and for the next fifteen years his school won garden competitions, the Agricultural Shield (1928,1937) and the Madoo Efficiency Medal (1933,1938). In 1913, Lionel Akal was appointed Head teacher of San Juan CMI and for thirty-seven years uplifted the school's image and made it one of the best primary schools in north Trinidad. Another outstanding teacher was Andrew Khan, a past student of Rousillac and Exchange CMI schools. He became Head teacher of the Jubilee CMI School and Union CMI. By 1937, Khan was appointed First Assistant Teacher of Princes Town CMI School and later promoted to Acting Head teacher as a result of the appointment of the previous principal to act as Assistant Inspector of Schools. During Khan's tenure, the school won the coveted Madoo Gold Medal and in August 1938, upon appointment as Headmaster of the Union CMI, Khan guided the school to remarkable achievements. By 1944, Union had won the Madoo Gold Medal for topping the College Exhibitions among primary schools and placed third among the intermediate and primary schools. The colony witnessed two decades of reform in the education system which began in 1920. In this year, the contribution of the Government to the Canadian mission was increased to $102,085 which meant that teachers' salaries were doubled. The passage of the Compulsory Education Ordinance in 1921 was optimistically greeted by society, however, the inability to enact the legislation meant that attendance at schools was not representative of the colony's children. Even though education was free, such expenses as transport, clothes and books continued to be a burden for certain parents.One year later, in 1922, the Seventh Standard Examination ended in all primary schools. In 1926, new West Indian Readers were being prepared by Captain J.O Cutteridge, Acting Director of Education. These books would include information relating to folk tales, geography, history, flora and fauna of the Caribbean. A decade later, a new code of Regulations for Secondary Education based on the recommendations of the Marriott-Mayhew Commission was passed in 1936. This legislation allowed for the provision of a new type of secondary school--the modern secondary school with a curriculum to be less classical and more diverse. The performance of the mission schools was always a source of pride among Presbyterians and they openly displayed their gratitude to the scholars who contributed to this reputation. For example, the 1925 edition of the monthly Trinidad Presbyterian periodically highlighted the scholastic achievements of its schools in the International Uniform Lessons and Scripture Knowledge examinations. Further incentives, including bursaries, were offered to the top 5 students to foster excellence in examinations. However, these examinations were not exclusively for students in Canadian missionaries but included other schools in San Fernando." The keenly competitive Exhibition Examination written by students in the 5th Standard was open to both Government and denominational schools. During this era, Naparima College offered the Senior Cambridge Medal and Junior Cambridge Medal to the students excelling in their examinations. The progress of schools in the colony was being closely monitored and by 1916 , the colony had 65 CMI schools. Nine years later in 1925, the educational work of Canadian missionaries had expanded and the Trinidad Presbyterian offers an insight into the mission's recognition as, "there are over 17,000 pupils getting their instruction from teachers trained by the mission and boarding schools and four high schools with 262 students." The achievements of the mission schools in education intensified the inseparable relationship between religion and education. As in previous years, the missionaries' work was highly appreciated primarily because of their concern for the personal welfare of the children attending the rural schools. They taught hygiene among the students at mission schools and there were cases where Epsom and Gluber salts were freely distributed. Additionally, the missionaries collected clothes and books from Canadian schools and these were distributed to the disadvantaged children in rural villages. The government complemented the missionaries' efforts as the Education Ordinance of 1918 specified the building standards and toilet facilities for all schools. The Presbyterian schools quickly built a reputation for producing a cadre of quality citizens and professionals. Belonging to this remarkable genre is Isaac Sinanan, a retired School Supervisor who benefitted from a primary school education at the Piparo CMI from 1920-1928. Sinanan fondly recalled the unique feature of the mission school was its Bible lessons and emphasis on the singing of Christian hymns in both English and Hindi. Sinanan admired the dedication of the Presbyterian teachers and their unanswering duty to maintain a high standard of academic work. He believed that during the period 1935-1945, the Presbyterian schools were academically better than the Government and other denominational schools in Trinidad. The Presbyterian schools benefitted from a generation of dedicated leaders such as Guyadeen, Sampath, the Goberdhans, the Akals, Niamath, Jagbandansingh, Khan, Ragbir, Mohan, Ramkerrysingh and Debysingh. The Woodbrook Presbyterian Primary School is a shining example of a school that owed its success to capable leadership. During 1927, there were 243 boys and 178 girls enrolled with a daily average attendance of 232 students. The renowned principal, Patrick Akal began the 'House System' which generated keen competition and a sense of discipline within the Woodbrook Primary School. His ability was recognized as, "the school excelled academically and attained the status of 'very good' in the Inspector's report of that period." Another example, is the Siparia Union School, founded by the Presbyterians, Anglicans and Methodists in 1930. A Presbyterian connection dominated in 1941, and under the guidance of Claudius Niamath, a former headmaster of Erin Road Presbyterian School, the school at Siparia emerged in the proud Presbyterian tradition. And like other principals, Niamath was an elder and lay-preacher of the Presbyterian Church. Winston Sankar, one of the first students who attended Siparia Union School in 1930, (later becoming the school's principal) vividly recalls his fascination with the singing of hymns and Bible stories. Even though the early efforts of the missionaries seemed to have concentrated on East Indians at the expense of racial integration, the Presbyterian Church cannot be accused of being prejudiced in the early decades of the twentieth century. There were equal opportunities for both races as Africans held prominent positions at the CMI schools. Alston Mike, was the first African teacher at Piparo Canadian Mission School although he later went to the Fifth Baptist Company School. Another African, Cuffie did not face discrimination and was allowed to become a Head-teacher at Piparo CMI. In the Chaguanas Canadian Mission school (now closed and housing a Health Clinic) another hardworking African teacher-Haynes, had been fully socialized and comfortable in the teaching environment of the mission. During the 1912-13 period a young African woman taught the Infant class at Rousillac CMI. Among these blacks there was no coercion to be baptized or to become communicants even though this was an important criterion for promotion. In one instance at the Registrar of the Supreme Court, Rev. Charles Lalla defended A. Rowans, an African who met all the requirements for promotion to Headmaster of a mission school including fluency in Hindi, was denied this position. Lalla came to his rescue and ensured Rowans received the promotion. The CMI schools never underscored the importance of selecting the academically superior monitors and thus, did not allow the issue of race to influence its appointments. Black pupils, despite being few in number, stood an equal chance as East Indians in being appointed as monitors in the CMI schools. The shortcomings of the early Canadian missionaries among the East Indian immigrants have been unduly criticized. Merle Davis in The East Indian Church in Trinidad argues that the missionary church was a middle class institution from the West and in its evangelism (including Trinidad) inevitably reproduced this middle-class phenomenon. The acceptance and reliance on financial assistance from the missionaries has apparently tarnished the image of the Canadian mission. The mission appeared as being linked to the white, privileged, sugar planters of the colony and thus the Canadian mission has been accused of failing to question the indenture system. Furthermore, Rev. John Morton and the mission have been judged as having failed in two areas. Firstly, deliberately neglected to imbue the East Indian working class with self-determination and secondly, overlooked the oppression of the lower, working class by the upper class. The Presbyterian missionaries encountered a class-based and racially segmented society in Trinidad. Their functioning within the parameters of a plantation economy made them heavily dependent on the financial support from the government and planters to supplement aid from the Presbyterian Church of Canada. Among the mission schools there was the belief that the education of the East Indians did not extend beyond the 3 r's (Reading, Writing and Arithmetic). However, it should be noted that the Canadian Presbyterians were not only educating the citizens of Trinidad but attempting to reform the colonial education system. The mission's educators were identifying obvious flaws in the education system and attempting to rectify them. One such enterprising soul was Rev. Kenneth Grant, who in his autobiography- My Missionary Moments, identified these shortcomings in secondary education: "...almost all existing secondary schools in the West Indies were institutions which had been imported lock, stock and barrel from the United Kingdom...primarily for the purpose of providing the necessary preparation for such privileged children." This view of education is supported by Ayearst who observed that, "West Indian education is on the British model and secondary schools emphasize British history and literature." Breaking from tradition, Naparima Boys' College attempted to carve its niche in society as, "Naparima developed not as a school for the privileged but as one where emphasis was laid upon the education of the working man's child." In terms of leadership, during its early history, Naparima College was fortunate to have been blessed with such exemplars as Dr. Coffin, Dr. J. Scrimgeour, Dr. H.F. Kemp, Rev. J.C. MacDonald and V.B Walls. Undoubtedly, they played a pivotal role in the religious and secular enlightenment of the young minds under their tutelage. In 1939, when Naparima Boys' College celebrated its first Founders Day in 1939, that occasion set an important precedent which has been adopted by other Presbyterian secondary schools. There was a correlation between the college's increasing reputation and the enrollment which increased from 70 boys in 1911, 85 in 1925, 120 in 1926 and to 640 students in 1953. The introduction of a Student Council in 1929 served to enhance the level of discipline in the college. Furthermore, the school's administrative system can be credited as contributing to its success, for instance, a supportive dedicated staff of teachers produced outstanding achievers as the winner of the Jerningham Silver Medal in 1945, whilst in 1952, two of its graduates served as Ministers of Government. The Naparima Training School also demonstrated a desire to reform the outlook on education that was envisioned by other institutions in society. In 1921, a landmark decision was made with the admittance of females who were accommodated with the addition of a teacher training department at the Training School. Among the educational endeavours of the Canadian mission, this was its first co-educational institution at the secondary level. The Headmaster, J.S. Sammy, reported on the school's performance at the Senior Class, Intermediate and Junior Class, and prizes awarded for perfect attendance. In the islandwide Government examinations of 1947, the Training School gained 3 of the 4 available first places and 6 of its graduates were chosen as Education Officers employed by the Government. During this era of the church's history, the teaching and appreciation of Hindi continued to be part of the worship services and meetings. One of the native East Indians, Rev. C.D Lalla, (ordained in 1915), was instrumental in the promotion of Hindi during this period. In the 1920s, "he conducted Hindi services, preached in Hindi and the singing of Hindi bhajans was often accompanied by eastern music instruments especially at the Calcutta Mission School room." Rev. Lalla gave introductory and advanced Hindi lessons and sometimes held night classes. Other ministers such as Rev. Hemp and Rev. V.B Walls were proficient in Hindi and assisted in its instruction at schools and churches. At the Naparima Training School, singing classes in Hindi were held on Saturdays whilst teachers such as Rev. Coffin instructed the students in Hindi. And, at the school's graduation ceremonies, three prizes were awarded for commendable performance at the senior, intermediate and junior levels. Likewise, Hindi was prominently included in the prize-giving ceremony of Naprima Girls' in 1926 and in 1933, Archibald devoted time for the translation of Hindi hymns for the benefit of her students. Interestingly, even though Hindi was being taught in Presbyterian schools, Divali and Phagwa were not celebrated by the Presbyterian mission schools. Also, despite the presence of East Indians belonging to the Muslim faith, the missionaries did not teach Arabic and the fervour of evangelism remained limited to Hindus. Apart from the teaching of Hindi, the Presbyterian missionaries were able to make significant contributions to the domestic life of the East Indian. The Hindu marriage ceremony was not recognized in the colony by law until 1945 with the passage of the Hindu Marriage Bill. The Presbyterian missionaries attempted to recognize the marriage ceremony that occured among non-Christians. By identifying problems affecting the East Indians and offering solutions, the missionaries were reinforcing their concerns for ensuring their assimilation into society. Such actions of the Presbyterian Church further increased the attraction of East Indians to the Canadian Mission schools. The teacher also played a pivotal role in evangelism. In 1998 Winston Sankar, a retired school principal, fondly recalled life in the 1930s and 1940s. Sankar categorically stated that, "to be a Presbyterian school teacher in those days was to be fully committed to the Church. I used this opportunity to evangelize to my pupils and others in the community." The missionaries never overlooked their mission to spread the Gospel as pupils of the CMI schools were encouraged by their teachers to attend the Sunday schools.Indeed, it became accepted among those attending mission schools that, "...the Bible is the text book for the first hour of the day, and instruction is given in righteousness and morality." Certain segments of the East Indian population continued to bitterly oppose the proselytism of the missionaries. In September 1930, angry parents removed 105 children from the Canadian Mission school in St. Thomas Village, Chaguanas and transferred them to the nearby Government school. The reason for this uproar was that parents felt insulted by the comments of Rev. Netram, an East Indian evangelist, on religious instruction in the mission school.            The inseparable nature of Religion and Education among the Presbyterians It was futile for the Presbyterian Church with its missionary zeal to either deny or disguise the overlapping nature of theological and secular education that was occurring among its institutions. In the early twentieth century, the 'Order of the Cathecists' had been established with responsibilities such as encouraging parents to send their children to school, assisting teachers in giving religious instruction and also teaching adults in evening classes. These cathecists formed a vibrant arm of the church and an essential group of teaching assistants for the missionaries. The Canadian missionaries, with their pivotal roles in the educational system were ably assisted by these Cathecists. This is apparent in the missionary work of Rev. Harvey Morton (son of the famous pioneer Rev. John Morton), who was directly responsible for the Guaico region and the eight schools in the area. Additionally, the workload included "the missionaries who were the corresponding managers and they appointed staff of the school." The cathecists who assisted these missionaries were excellent role models for the colony and were usually of both high calibre and caste. Undoubtedly, the cathecists, like the teacher/headmaster, assisted the missionaries in upholding the image of the Presbyterian mission. The indispensable role of the cathecists in spreading the 'good news' of the importance of education should not be underestimated. By 1916, when stationed at Tunapuna, Rev. Harvey Morton identified one of the mission stations- the 'Tunapuna Field' as having a respectable figure of twenty schools, twenty-three Sunday schools and two night schools which were assisted by cathecists, Bible women and teacher-cathecists. During 1916, Harvey Morton in the Annual Report identified 17 cathecists and teacher-cathecists serving this region. In 1934, the younger Morton reported the tremendous work achieved with native assistance, "there were three ordained 'East Indian ministers': Rev. J.E Gibbings, C.D Lalla and H.M Buddhu (in the field) also cathecists and volunteer preachers who were teachers and independent laymen. The dual role of teacher/cathecist reinforced the notion of inseparability between education and religion which was instilled by the Canadian mission. The early mission was blessed with upright teacher-cathecists as Benjamin Balaram, Paul Bhukhan, Joseph Annajee, C.C Soodeen. The statistics of table 1 provide evidence of the available human resources in Trinidad assisting the Presbyterian primary and secondary schools, the lady-missionaries who concentrated on girls' education and the general increase of Presbyterian schools in Trinidad. In neighbouring British Guiana, it was not unorthodox for the cathecist to serve as a teacher in the mission field. In Trinidad and Tobago in 1936, there were 72,119 pupils on roll and 1,904 teachers employed. The government's expenditure on education in 1933 was £161,000 and this had increased to £185,000 in 1937. During this period of considerable growth in the colony, it was important to have a reliable supply of teachers to fill vacancies in primary schools. The responsibilities of the Head-teacher in Presbyterian schools was not limited to classroom teaching but included the superintendency of the Sunday school which was held on a monthly basis. After school, from 3.30 to 4.30 pm, the Head-teacher gave lessons to Pupil teachers and Monitors. In addition to the responsibilities at school, the Head-teacher performed a pivotal role in the village, as Andrew Khan recalled, "my work as a Head Teacher apart from school administration, regular class teaching and management, embraced a host of extra-class and extra-school activities...Whenever the people had problems they came to me. No matter what was the nature of the problem in the opinion of the people, the Head-teacher was capable of giving appropriate advice and counsel." By 1937, the Presbyterian schools in Trinidad had the highest average of schools rated as 'very good' and 'good' when compared to the other denominational and government schools. In the 1930s, the publication of the Pupil Teachers' examinations of the first, second and third years in the daily press, served as an incentive for young teachers to perform admirably. The feats of the Trinidad mission were not isolated achievements as by 1919, the Canadian mission in British Guiana was a resounding success with 79 school teachers, 1 high school, 2 high school teachers, 46 Sunday Schools and 38 day schools and 29 cathecists. Initially, many of the buildings of these Canadian Mission schools were in close proximity to a church or served as a church on Sundays. Physically this mirrored the close relationship between religion and education among the early Presbyterians. An illustration was the Woodbrook Presbyterian Primary School which served as a multipurpose institution as,"the school building was the centre for the evangelistic site of the Canadian Mission work in Woodbrook ...The school-house was also the meeting place of the Friendly Society and Literary clubs which influenced the non-Christians into the fold." This image of the church and school being intrinsically united and having a mutual interest in the betterment of society was ironically due to a lack of proper infrastructure, as church services without a place for worship were often held in primary schools on Sundays. By November 1925, it was common knowledge that, "the church and the school grow together and are dependent upon each other." In south Trinidad there were innumerable examples of a close and cordial relationship between church and school. These included the Fyzabad CMI School and Morning Star Church (Bhor Ka Tara), Rousillac CMI School and Sun of Righteousness (Dharm Ka Surj), San Francique Presbyterian School and San Francique Church (Jewan Ka Sota), Siparia Road CMI School and Light of the World Church (Jagat Ka Prakash), Penal Rock Presbyterian School and Penal Rock Presbyterian Church, and finally, Erin Road CMI and Erin Road Presbyterian Church. The association between religion and education seemed inescapable. On Paradise Hill in San Fernando, the proximity of the Theological College, Teachers' Training College and Naparima Boys' College fostered cordial relationships between students and teachers. The introduction of courses common to the interests of both teachers and preachers assisted in cementing the relationship between the secular and religious domain. Thus, it was no surprise that during the period 1910-1930, Second Class Head teachers as Imamshah, Sultanti, Ramrekha and Hosein left the teaching profession to enter the ministry. The St. Andrew's Theological College has been identified as being involved in, "the preparation of young men for various secular vocations and the preparation of Ministers to offer society pastoral care and guidance were seen as one inseparable mission of the Presbyterian Church." On January 12, 1912, Naparima Girls High School began as a single classroom at the site of Grant Memorial Presbyterian School. Five years later the school moved to La Pique where it has remained for more than eighty years. During this era, not only were young men prepared for life vocations but the educational and social needs of women in society continued to be addressed. This offered a challenge to the mission of the Presbyterian Church in the 1930s. In a patriarchal, class based and rigidly segmented, colonial society, the Presbyterian provided the human and financial resources needed to champion the elevation of East Indian women. By 1932, the challenge was realized with the founding, in honour of A.S. Archibald, of the Archibald Vocation Institute (AVI) at St. Augustine. This spacious institute provided a four-year course for teenaged girls. Former principal of the Archibald Vocational Institute, Mrs. Ruth McFarlane, captures the primary mission of this institution as it,"prepared them with basic life skills and wholesome values and attitudes, ready to accept the kind of maturity which would enhance the strong fibre of family life and give real leadership in the community." Emphasis was placed on the family life, evident in the broad spectrum of intensive courses which included- Nutrition and Homemaker classes, Infant and Child Welfare clinics. This institution filled a void in the education of girls who were neither academically inclined nor financially secure. In this less competitive environment, subjects of an academic and religious nature were also taught. This provision of a well-rounded education was of enormous benefit to the East Indian girls who were traditionally married at an early age even after the abolition of Indentureship. The women missionaries from Canada aided the Presbyterian mission's educational effort by their admirable work among teenaged girls in the fields of leadership and fellowship. In 1922, two Canadian women- Miss Beattie and Miss Kemp, organized the first Trinidad Girls in Training Group (T.G.I.T) among young women at Susamachar Church, San Fernando. This group undertook the task of nurturing minds of girls between the ages of 12-20 years. Similarly, in 1947, two pioneering women- Mabel Brandow and Mary Naimool (the first locally ordained female minister) began an 'Explorers' group in the north which targeted young girls in need of comraderie and guidance. These groups mushroomed in areas alongside Presbyterian schools and rapidly gained popularity. By 1950, there were 60 T.G.I.T groups (with members between 12 and 19 years) and twenty Explorer groups (catering for 8-11 years) and these social groups were promoted through both the Presbyterian churches and schools as they understandably, "helped the Christian girl to understand her faith and put it into practice." The Women's Missionary Society of Canada gave financial assistance, in the form of scholarships, to the local Women's Missionary Society (founded in 1928), for the training of Trinidadian women in Christian Education. Mabel Brandow whose service to Trinidad spanned from 1946 to 1975, fondly recalls the Women's Missionary Society (W.M.S) as a vibrant arm of`the Presbyterian Church. On a monthly basis, Brandow and a few Bible Women visited such rural areas as Sangre Grande, Guaico and Biche to spread the Gospel and promote fellowship. The annual conference of the WMS was well-attended with an average of 500 women and at these gatherings, bhajans, sermons and prayers in Hindi were part of the proceedings. The female graduates of the Christian Education Leadership Training Courses (C.E.L.T.C), spearheaded seminars to expose teachers to appropriate religious literature for schools, produced guides for religious instruction in primary schools and assisted the TGIT groups. There were other social groups as the Christian Endeavour (later called Young People's Fellowship) which started about 1930 but interest gradually waned in the later years. Wilfred Ramkerrysingh, a retired School Supervisor, recalls the large attendance at rallies of the Girls' Work Board and Boys' Work Board which included the T.G.I.T and Trail Rangers. Despite these achievements, one festering problem of the Presbyterian Church was the seemingly dominant control of the Canadian missionaries over its schools. Even though East Indians were being appointed as head-teachers, head-masters and teachers in the primary and secondary schools; feelings of discontent and dissidence gradually emerged among the native pastors and teachers. One of the reasons for this defiance among the local clergy was the absence of East Indians among the field missionaries and on the Mission Council of Trinidad. The reason partly being that the field missionaries' responsibilities included overseeing the applications for teaching jobs, applications for Teachers' College entry, leaves of absence, increments and disciplinary complaints against head teachers. This growing dissidence among the East Indians should not merely be seen in isolation but must be viewed in the socio-political context of the Caribbean. In the 1920s, the development of the working-class movement throughout the West Indies and the clamouring for self-government struck a chord among the East Indian Presbyterian ministers. In 1928, the yearning for independence emanated from the teachers employed in the primary schools responded to the foreign control of education by organizing themselves into the Canadian Mission Teachers Association (C.M.T.A). This brave attempt to seek some educational independence lacked effective leadership but continued to exist and voice the concerns of teachers. Among the native ministers, the leadership received the initiative and impetus which served to accelerate the transfer of the reins of power into the hands of the local clergy. In the 1920s and 1930s, valiant men such as Rev. Charles David Lalla and Rev. H.D Imamshah, demanded equality in salary and pastoral responsibilities and thus increased the awareness and need for the eventual indigenization and independence of the Presbyterian Church in Trinidad. The Canadian missionaries evaded the appeals for pastoral equality among the native ministers. It was obvious the missionaries were desirous of continuing to oversee the mission, "they wanted assistants-passive, obedient, co-operative assistants, at that. They encouraged a dependency relationship between the native pastors and themselves thereby creating a weak native ministry and discouraging more independent and strong-minded leadership. This attitude towards the native ministry is parallel to the attitude in colonial government administration. The colonial administration wanted good assistants, but seldom equals." In 1931, the Presbyterian Church in Trinidad broke ties with the Presbyterian Church of Canada and became an independent body, however, the Canadian missionaries continued to humbly serve the colony. More than a decade later, in 1947, the local Church had organized a programme in which locals desiring to enter the priesthood would be sent abroad to pursue the Bachelor of Arts (B.A) and Bachelor of Divinity (B.D) degrees at Canadian universities. The emphasis on a high quality education for the native ministry was one of the enduring legacies of the Canadian mission. By the 1940s in spite of these internal transformations, the Presbyterian Church could boast of having produced numerous distinguished leaders in society. One such leader was Rev. Charles D. Lalla, the first President of the East Indian National Association (E.I.N.A) and the first local President of the Beekeeper's Association, was elected to the Legislative Council in which he served on various boards. Other prominent Presbyterians were N. Ramcharan, C.H Gopaul and Dr. F. Mahabir who were leaders of the East Indian National Congress (E.I.N.C). In the political arena, prominent leaders who benefitted from Presbyterian schools included Adrian Cola Rienzi, Timothy Roodal and Mitra Sinanan who attended San Fernando Mission School and later Naparima Boys' College. In 1912, George Fitzpatrick, the first East Indian in the Legislative Council, was once a pupil of Rev. K.J Grant. During this era, Naparima Girls'High School produced its share of worthy graduates, many who attended CMI schools. In the medical field, such outstanding graduates as Sylvia Ramcharan attended the Princes Town CMI School.Additionally, Mario Ramraji a registered nurse; two opticians- Evelyn Lucky and Celestina E. Lucky, attended Rousillac CMI. Other renowned alumni from Presbyterians schools include Stella Abidh (first East Indian woman doctor in Trinidad and Tobago), Pearl Roopchand and Agnes Ramcharan who also became medical doctors upon graduation from Naparima Girls. By 1950, the Presbyterian Church had expanded its sphere of education by attempting to educate young boys and girls through its various institutions and social groups. However, even though there were many well-known Presbyterian primary schools in south Trinidad (there were no Presbyterian secondary schools in north and central Trinidad). During the years 1919-1950, a Presbyterian education had become identified or synonymous with quality education because of its sterling contributions in the academic, extra-curricular and public domain In the north, with internal migration from rural to urban areas there was a clamour for secondary level institutions with the Presbyterian trademark of excellence. By 1950, it became increasingly evident that the Presbyterian schools had excelled in human resource management. The leaders in schools and institutions easily adapted to a society in transition and maximized and harnessed the available expertise to achieve superior academic and extra-curricular performances. By producing talented individuals with leadership qualities, the Canadian missionaries ensured the human potential was efficiently utilized. This was critical in an environment overburdened with social and economic limitations. During this period, it was evident that the interlocking relationship between church and school became stronger. There were also financial incentives by the government in 1950 which reduced the burden among assisted secondary schools. The government offered staff grants of $2,500 per year for the principal and $500 to $1,500 for each staff member, coupled with capitation grants of $10 to $40 per term. In the sphere of education, the humanistic impulse of the Presbyterian Church remains unrivalled. There is little doubt that the philanthrophic desires were satisfied in the dedicated work in Presbyterian schools. The showers of blessings duly appropriated for the Presbyterian Church benefitted its schools as its graduates left an indelible impression on the landscape of Trinidad.                  The strength of Presbyterian Secondary education (1956-1979) In the post-1950 period Trinidad and Tobago witnessed radical changes in the political, economic and social spheres. The emergence of full-fledged political parties in the late 1950s, the granting of Independence in 1962, the Black Power Revolution in 1970 and the attainment of Republican status in 1976, were historic changes which made the leaders and citizens of Trinidad and Tobago more acutely aware of their identity, and the pressing need to seek social, political and economic improvements. The 'oil boom' years contributed to the upsurge of infrastructure which included the erection of numerous Government institutions which assisted in the dispensation of knowledge and reduction of illiteracy. The flaws and stigma of a colonial education was immortalized in literature and calypsoes. For example Franciso Slinger (The Mighty Sparrow) with the calypso Dan is the Man emphasized the influence and effects of a colonial education in Trinidad and Tobago. There is the belief that the illiteracy was a product of the colonial educational system as, "the high rate of illiteracy that continued well into the1950s was only superficially a result of inadequate school places, and the inability to effect compulsory education, especially in rural areas. It was more fundamentally a function of the colonial agrarian economy." The denominational schools became embroiled in a controversy to reform education so that it would reflect a native Trinidadian flavour and thus better serve society. A sign of the times and to some, an impending omen, was the 'Great Debate of 1955' between Dr. Eric Williams and Dom Basil Matthews, a Benedictine monk. This signalled a watershed, which would shape future discourse on the role of the state and denominational schools. The young, charismatic Williams strongly condemned denominational schools as being elitist and a breeding ground for disunity as he contended that the state schools reflected the true spirit of nationalism. In contrast, Dom Basil Matthews argued in favour of denominational schools. Both intellectuals failed to credit or acknowledge the fact that both state and denominational schools were given the herculean task of reducing illiteracy and freeing a people from the shackles and bonds of colonialism. In 1959 certain problems in the education system were apparent. Insufficient primary school places seemed to be a chronic problem as there was an estimated shortage of some 30,000 primary school places. The total enrollment of primary schools and assisted schools had increased from 104,936 in 1950 to 145,512 in 1956. Williams, as Premier of Trinidad and Tobago and Minister of Finance, in 1960 proceeded to implement certain educational reforms. On March 23 1960, Williams, in his Budget presentation, announced free secondary education for the population. The historic year of 1961 marked the first year of free secondary education in Trinidad and Tobago as\ the fee of $16 per term was removed from denominational schools. However, the division between denominational and government schools graduallywidened. By 1965, various denominational Boards of Management were in existence reflecting the religious diversity of the island. The Roman Catholics, Presbyterians, Hindus, Muslims, Moravian, Methodists, American Baptists and Seventh Day Adventists had an established presence in education. Williams persistently attacked the exclusiveness of the denominational schools by highlighting the tendencies of parents to send their children to the school of their faith. According to Williams, this percentage was highest among the Presbyterians with 61% of Presbyterian children attending Presbyterian schools, whilst 60% of Catholics, 48% of Methodists and 44% Anglicans adopted a similar criteria in choosing a school. During his public lectures in 1965, Williams continued to highlight the insubordination fostered by denominational schools with the solution being Government secondary schools as the main agent of integration. Based on the 1965 Common Entrance Examination results, Williams emphasized that the placement at secondary schools was indicative of denominational schools having a negative effect on integration in Trinidad and Tobago. In 1965, a total of 1,734 children were placed in 17 Government, 1,084 in 11 Roman Catholic, 336 in 4 Anglican and 487 in Presbyterian schools. And of considerable significance to this study is the fact that the single largest religious group in the Presbyterian schools was Hindus. Despite criticisms of the role of denominational schools, the Presbyterian Church did not lose its focus, and with the introduction of free secondary education, it continued to maintain a high quality of education among its schools. In the 1950s, young boys and girls in the Presbyterian schools in the north experienced the revolutionizing power of a Presbyterian secondary school education with the establishment of Hillview College and St. Augustine Girls' High School. The aura of excellence in education surrounding these schools enveloped and embraced Trinidad. In 1950, a secondary school accommodating 49 girls in north Trinidad began at the Archibald Institute building. In 1952, the school population moved to its present site and adopted the name- St. Augustine Girls' High School (S.A.G.H.S). Unknowingly, the Presbyterian missionaries had embarked on a project which would blossom into one of the country's top girls' secondary schools This secondary school, with additional accommodation, established and maintained a distinguished academic record from its inception. It was like the light of the wilderness setting afire and illuminating the minds of young girls in the Central and North. An addition to the family of Presbyterian secondary schools was welcomed in the deep south with the completion of Iere High School in Siparia. This marked a milestone as it was the first denominational co-educational secondary institution founded by the Canadian mission. This novel system brought many positive experiences as identified in a commemorative brochure of the Teachers' Training College, "...boys and girls should be educated together because such education will promote wholesome friendships and will add variety and interest to the intellectual and social life of the school." The birth of Iere High School began in 1954 with a meeting convened at Siparia Union Presbyterian School to discuss the establishment of a branch of Naparima College. On January 17, 1955, Naparima College (South) celebrated its first day in existence. There was no delay in ensuring the school gained a stable foothold. By 1956, an auditorium was erected and by May 1957, Iere High School became a Government assisted school. Even though Iere High School was not as prominent as the other Presbterian secondary schools, it has faithfully served the south and is part of the success story of the Presbyterian Church. Rev. John Grant, who founded Iere in 1955, served as its first principal from 1955 to 1961. This secondary school benefitted from a firm leadership base with such principals as Dr. Constance Wagar (1962-64) and Rev. C. Beharry (1964-80). By 1963, Iere was able to offer Advanced Level classes but had to wait for sixteen years before it received its first scholarship (Natural Science) in 1979. Iere has adopted the customs and practices of its Presbyterian peers in the education system, for instance, in 1983, the revival of the Student Council was appreciated by the school's administration as essential in the creation of a wholesome student life. The Trinidad Girls in Training (TGIT) which began at Iere in 1975, contributed significantly to the moulding and shaping of character and morals. Members in this branch of the TGIT participated in the creative arts and made visitations to the Penal Home for Retarded Children. In the late 1950s, the Presbyterian Church steadfastly continued to fulfill its educational mandate. In response to the growing demand for secondary education among Presbyterian boys residing in the north, the church transformed an old Presbyterian primary school building at Sheriff Street into Naparima College, Tunapuna branch in 1953. The establishment of this school was welcomed by the local community and in 1979 the building was renovated and renamed Hillview College. In the north both Hillview and St. Augustine Girls High School (S.A.G.H.S) became twin beacons for a society forging ahead in the educational race for excellence. These additions to the school system would have been welcomed because at the secondary level, enrollment was limited to 15,000 students as compared to 187,000 places at the primary school level. The Presbyerian Church as a product of the burdensome, bureaucratic colonial system inherited parallel structures with its educational committees and boards. However, the Presbyterians never lost sight of the role religion was to play in education. In 1958 Siparia Union School celeebrated Pioneers' Day, likewise, Naparima Training College and the Theological College observed Founders' Day. Such practices reinforced the indissoluble relationship between church and school. The hosting of Presbyterian groups such as the Girls' Work Board by Naparima Girls High School proved that within the Presbyterian Church there were no boundaries to isolate the school and church. Further evidence of this "open-door" policy occured in the districts of Retrench, Golconda, Friendship,Victoria Village and St. John which were served by three Sunday Schools ably assisted by students from Naparima College. And in 1962 a conference involving 200 teachers, held at the Susamachar Presbyterian Church, was sponsored by the Christian Education Board of the Presbyterian Church in Trinidad and Grenada. During the 1960s, the St. Andrew's Theological College worked in collaboration with the Naparima Training College for Teachers in providing a course in Religious Knowledge. As in the earlier decades the focus on religion and education was echoed during 1950-1970. Rev. C.F.Beharry, a supporter of evangelism through education, openly expressed his view that schools would be an excellent medium for the continuing mission of the Presbyterian Church. At the secondary schools, the Presbyterians seemed to be duplicating their succeses at the primary level. The Principal's Report for Naparima College in 1958 would have been the envy of other secondary schools. Based on the results of the 1957 examinations, the institution boasted of a 77% success rate in Higher Certificate examinations and 71% passes of Second Division certificates in School Certificate exams. Another milestone, was the winning of an Island Open Scholarship by Larry Lutchmansingh, who was the first boy in a school outside Port-of-Spain to achieve this feat (this was not the first scholarship for Naparima). The principal also revealed that new laboratory facilites enabled the subjects of Additional Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Biology to be offered for the Higher Certificate exams. At SAGHS, in 1959, similar academic victories were recorded; as 56 of the 60 candidates passed the Senior Cambridge exams and 3 of the 4 students attempting the Higher School Certificate were successful. The principal of Iere High School, Constance E. Wagar, in her annual report emphasized the academic merits of the school. The school copped 85% passes in the Senior Cambridge exams in 1962, and of the 33 candidates sitting the exam, twenty-eight passed with grade 1, eight with Grade 2 and eleven with Grade 3. Also, there was an overall of eight distinctions -- 5 in Geography, 1 in Literature and 2 in Language. There were numerous advantages of attending Presbyterian high schools, particularly, in the sphere of religious and moral values among the impressionable young minds under their care. One example being the charismatic group- the Inter-School Christian Fellowship (I.S.C.F) which included such activities as educational games, leadership training and Bible study. Such meetings created viable opportunities for interaction, discussion, building confidence and were thus deemed spiritually rewarding exercises. Each of the five Presbyterian secondary schools founded a vibrant branch of the I.S.C.F to foster better human relations which was reminiscent of the zeal of the early Canadian missionaries to improve human relations. Presbyterian schools and institutions were not only recognized for their academic pursuits but also their extra-curricular achievements. Naparima College pioneered the introduction of activities which would create a well-rounded individual. In the1950s, the appreciation of the arts was evident with the existence of a dormitory drama group, senior literary associations coupled with the school's participation in the Shakespeare Festival. Such avenues provided ample opportunities for the artistically gifted and the college has been fortunate to benefit from the services of such men as James Lee Wah who has been instrumental in promoting cultural activities. Another institution- the Naparima Teacher Training College (closed 1975), located on Paradise Hill, San Fernando, provided yeoman service to the nation's teachers who received their initial exposure to the career of teaching there. This college offered a unique, co-educational environment conducive to learning. Its facilities for Woodwork and Home Economics demonstrated the institutions's open-mindedness to the needs of a society in transition. Such activities as cricket, football, drama, volleyball and photography indicated that attempts were made to offer a flexible curriculum which was not exclusively academic. During this period, women's work continued to play an important role in the Presbyterian church. In 1951, the Committee for Women's Work (originally the Interim Committee for Women's Work) was established. On March 18, 1967, the Committee for Women's Work held its first joint meeting with the Women's Missionary Society with a pro tem Constitution dealing with the governing bodies of girls' institutions, girls' work board and the Presbyterian Church women's groups. A welcome addition to the mission among women occured on January 22nd, 1968 with the ordination of the first local woman minister of the Presbyterian Church- Rev. Mary Naimool. The work of women in the education of girls continued to thrive. At the Archibald Vocational Institute, in 1960, there were 33 students, fifteen years later this number had increased to 80. Experiencing a similar growth was Naparima Girls' High School with 854 students in 1960 and this enrollment had increased to 900 in 1982. Even though the Presbyterian mission was associated with the liberation of women in the educational and social spheres, there were inconsistencies. Women were not appointed to the position of head-teacher or principal in the schools. As late as March 10, 1970, Marjorie Dubarry Cameron, a graduate of Naparima Teachers' Training College became the first woman principal in Presbyterian schools. Her appointment to Guaico-Tamana Presbyterian School signalled a major breakthrough for women in the teaching profession. Other women principals who served with distinction in this period included Winnifred Gyan, Dorinda Mike Sampath, Myrtle Hosein Haqq, Sybil Ramlochansingh, Mahadeo, Miriam S. Mohammed and Margaret L. Jagessar. The agitation for equality among the native Presbyterian ministers in the 1920s and 1930s was beneficial in the later decades, as the mantle of leadership of its secondary schools was passed to locally trained individuals. By 1962, Rev. J.F Seunarine had been appointed to Naparima College, Anna Mahase to St. Augustine Girls High School, Dr. Stephen Moosai-Maharaj to Hillview College, Samuel Meighlal to Naparima Teacher's College and Beula Meghu at Naparima Girls' High School. In the 1960s, the church seemed to have carefully embarked on an education plan. On September 8, 1960, the Presbytery met to discuss the Church's policy on education from which a four page preliminary report was presented. The Committee on Education in Christian Stewardship (a sub-committee of the Church Devlopment Board) was established on April 17, 1961. This year also marked the historic acceptance of the Presbyterian Church in Trinidad into the World Conference of Churches which was another important step in the independence of the local church and its recognition as a Christian body. Despite blazing a trail in the field of education, during 1950-1960 the growth of Presbyterian congregations was a disappointment and not reflective of the educational successes and expansion of its schools. This slow rate of conversion was neither a deterrent for the early Canadian missionaries nor the later indigenous Presbyterian leaders from continuing the educational arm of the mission. In the 1960 census, the Presbyterian community comprised only 6% of the total population and managed to carve only a small niche in evangelization. In 1968, when the Presbyterian Church celebrated its centenarian year of existence in Trinidad it had already indelibly etched its name in education. Despite this evangelical setback, by 1968, the Church had an impressive record of building and administering 73 primary schools with an enrollment of 38,000 pupils and 1,000 teachers, 5 secondary schools and a Teachers Training College.           The response of Presbyterian education amidst competition and criticisms Canadian Mission schools were the recipient of pupils of different religious faiths but this was eventually modified as other non-Christian denominations established schools. In 1949, one of the first beneficiaries of the introduction of educational grants to non-Christian schools was the Tackveeyatul Islamic Association (TIA) which allowed the building of schools for Muslim students. The fifties and sixties witnessed the emergence of vibrant religious Hindu groups such as the Sanatan Dharma Maha Sabha, intent on establishing primary schools for children of their faith. The Kabir Panth Association established two primary schools in Thicke Village in Siparia (1954) and Agostini Settlement in Chase Village (1959). Similarly other religious groups as the Arya Samajists were instrumental in building a number of primary schools, an early one being Montrose Vedic in Chaguanas (1952), the Memorial Vedic in San Juan and the Avocat Vedic School in 1960. Between 1952-1967, the Hindus had established 40 primary schools, 3 secondary schools with a total enrollment of 17,000 students and 700 teachers. These educational institutions primarily targeted the education of East Indians in the post-indentureship era. They filled a void among those East Indians who were more responsive to an education in schools which taught their language, faith and beliefs. This posed little or no threat to the Presbyterian schools which were already firmly established at both primary and secondary levels. It was evident that non-Christian groups had grasped the significance of ensuring their religion's survival and education of the younger generation in an atmosphere identical to their faith. Despite the increase in non-Christian denominational schools, the Presbyterian primary schools continued to attract a respectable number of students. In 1953 there were 2,600 pupils in Muslim schools, 6,200 attending Hindu schools and an enrollment of 23,400 in Presbyterian schools. The total had increased in 1961 as the population among Hindu schools witnessed a meteoric increase with 17,300 students whilst Muslimschools recorded 5,150 and remaining on top was the Presbyterians with an enrollment of 32,250. There is a plethora of reasons for the choice of a Presbyterian primary school for one's education in the 1950s and 1960s. Some of the explanations for enrollment at a Presbyterian school included the previous attendance of parents, grandparents or relatives. For many parents, this exposure to the Presbyterian school system had etched a positive impression and felt imperative that another generation should follow in their educational footsteps. Secondly, in some communities the Presbyterian schools were highly recommended as a result of its performance at the Common Entrance Examinations. Families would prefer to send their children to an academically superior school of a different religion or denomination rather than choose a school compatible with their faith and of a lower standard. In 1959, a survey of students attending schools of a different religion revealed that 23,818 children (87%) attending Presbyterian schools did not belong to the Presbyterian faith.This total among Presbyterian was the highest in comparison to other denominational schools. Among non-Christians, the latent fear of their children being converted seemed to have receded or not given priority as factors such as performance of the school and location became important determinants in the decision of attaining a primary education. Often, for convenience and to reduce transportation costs, the proximity of a primary school was an influential factor. There was also a subtle racial deterrent that influenced the choice of an institution. Some non-Presbyterians, particularly of East Indian descent, candidly expressed their reservations of allowing their children to mix with those pupils of African descent. These non-Presbyterian East Indians believed that at a Presbyterian school with a majority of East Indians their children would have a better chance of being socialized. This contributed to the racially unbalanced composition of schools in racially mixed areas. For instance, the Education Report of 1959 discovered that in racially heterogeneous areas as Couva, Tunapuna and San Fernando the schools were racially unbalanced as 97 of 100 pupils in the same school was one of the same racial descent. The findings of the report condemned this phenomenon believing, "this is not a healthy prospect in so mixed a racial population and does not envisage or ensure the harmonious mixing of the society outside the school." The legacy of the Presbyterian primary schools continued unchecked and served as an incentive for students. In 1958, at San Juan Presbyterian, a remarkable total of 13 of the 25 pupils writing examinations won Government College Exhibitions. Furthermore, 29 passes were obtained in Primary School Leaving Certificate Examination and from this group, two won Government teaching bursaries. This school also held the honour of winning the George Fitzpatrick Shield for the highest aggregate in the annual CMTA Education Test in 1961. Jubilee Presbyterian School (built in 1924) had a relatively impressive record with a noteworthy attendance fo 215 pupils on roll. Since its inception, Jubilee Presbyterian had not won a College Exhibition but in 1961 the school achieved 3 passes to "Grammar schools." The Training College for teachers in Trinidad played a pivotal role in supplying quality teachers. In existence since 1959 was the Naparima Training College with an enrollment of 60, the Catholic Women's Training College with a roll of 40 and the Government Training College with 150 teachers. These three colleges had a total annual enrollment of 250 teachers who pursued a two year training course. In 1964, there were 5 Training Colleges in existence, the additions being the Emergency Training College and the Mausica Teachers' College (both owned by the Government). These five training institutions had 330 teachers enrolled in 1964. In the mid-1970s, the closure of the Naparima Training College for Teachers did not impact negatively on the quality of teachers especially as the Presbyterian schools were suitably equipped with qualified teachers ready to accept educational challenges and reforms. The Report on Primary Schools for the period 1977-78 revealed that Presbyterian schools had the highest aggregate in the pupil/teacher ratios reflecting the extra demand for school places in Presbyterian schools. Furthermore, the Presbyterian schools boasted of leading attendance figures in the counties of Victoria, St. Andrew/St. David, Nariva/Mayaro whilst it ranked second in Caroni and third in San Fernando. The Presbyterians continued to be a formidable presence in the sphere of primary and secondary education. A continuing link between the Presbyterian Church and its schools has been the role of the chaplain in its five secondary schools and 72 primary schools. This link between education and religion has been strengthened in recent years with the creation of the Board of Christian Education. The minister of each region is assigned the responsibility of the primary and secondary schools in his/ her region. One minister saw the role of the College Chaplain in the 1960s as that of being responsible for conducting worship services and planning academic courses. This role has undergone minor changes as the minister no longer has an input in academic issues but continues to inculcate morals and values at morning worship services, school functions, anniversaries and annual graduations, thereby strengthening bonds between religious and educational activities. During the 1960s, the Presbyterian Church seemed to have encountered a watershed as it faced seemingly insurmountable challenges in its ministry. The tragedy that befell the Presbyterians was a familiar one with physical expansion of its schools and churches but with no corresponding success in evangelism. Based on data provided by the Statistical secretary of the Synod in 1964, there were only 2,423 active families in the Presbyterian Church, 5,593 communicants and a total of 22,868 receiving pastoral supervision. By 1966 there was insignificant change in the attitude of a considerable number of individuals towards the Presbyterian Church as it was conveniently used to further self-interests, "... a high percentage of "defections" among those who "receive the call" use the resources of the Presbyterian Church as a lever to a University degree and then ditch it just when they feel like it; a marked inactivity in Sunday School work and other church activities on the part of primary school teachers after they have won a coveted place in the Teachers' Training College;..." These observations are not unfounded but echoed an earlier concern of Garth Legge in The Report of a Preliminary Survey of the Presbyterian Church in Trinidad and Grenada.(1965). Legge believed that the education system had blurred the church's mission as persons with vested interests and seeking prestige tended to be involved in the administration of the church and its schools, "the preponderance in Church courts of members with strong educational interests is held to deflect the Church from the wider issues of life....The struggle for prestige and the exercise of power through the system were regarded as injurious to the Church's witness." Some shortcomings of Legge's study include the glaring absence of statistics and a lack of in-depth analysis. His methodology could be questioned as no mention was made of the size of the interviewed group, their gender, religion, geographical location, age or class. Furthermore, his observations seem to be mere generalizations for instance though the problem of teachers with alcoholic and sexual problems has been pinpointed, the author failed to determine if these problems were prevalent among male teachers, primary or secondary schools and the attitude or response of the Presbyterian Church. The accusation that the Presbyterian Church has fostered the alienation of East Indian community can be easily dismissed. There are other avenues such as religion, sports, medicine, politics, and culture in which racial and social interaction is occurring. Similarly, the bond between church and school had an overwhelmingly positive impact. Indeed, by 1958 seven Presbyterian ministers were principals but this was not a wrongdoing of the Presbyterian Church. Instead it was a result of the natural tendency of the missionaries to monitor the religious development of their schools. The period 1956-1979 was an era of significant change since Trinidad and Tobago was no longer a colony. Among the Presbyterians, this was also a time of uncertainty with the transition of power from the Canadian missionaries to the native leadership and administration. Among the secondary schools there was some anxiety as to the ability of the schools to continue in the path of excellence blazed by the CMI schools. The academic performance of the secondary schools and the local leadership of the institutions proved that the transfer of responsibility was successful. The Presbyterian schools, like other denominational schools, withstood the challenge of the Government's attempt to introduce reforms that would prove detrimental to its reputation and quest for excellence.     Preparing for the 21st century Presbyterian education during the 1980s and 1990s. In the final two decades of the twentieth century, the Presbyterian Church faced numerous challenges and also achieved milestones. Among the women there were significant events. In 1982, Miriam Doman became the last of the Bible Women and the Girls' Work Board celebrated its sixtieth anniversary. Furthermore, in 1989, the Presbyterian Church could boast of having its first locally trained and ordained woman minister. Even though Hindi was no longer taught in its schools there is the continuation of bhajan singing at special occasions and prayer-meetings with Karo Meri Sahai (Help me Lord Jesus) being one of the most popular bhajans. In the late 1980s, a compilation of popular hymns was translated and made available to the Presbyterian community. The Presbyterian Church celebrated 125 years of Christian mission and service to Trinidad and Tobago in 1993. And two Presbyterian institutions celebrated their centenary in the 1990s- the St. Andrew's Theological College in 1992 and Naparima College in 1994. In the 1980s and 1990s there were attempts to reform the education system of Trinidad and Tobago. However, reminiscent of the colonial period, the grandiose plans were often not implemented. It was unfortunate that restructuring of the education system failed to materialize. The publication of A Draft Education Plan 1985-1990 was designed to improve the quality of education as a major objective but the problems persisted. One of the discrepancies was the annual Common Entrance Examination, in which there were more students than places at secondary schools. Those students failing the Common Entrance were virtually ignored by the Government and their futures were in jeopardy with their education being abruptly curtailed. In 1995, an alarming number of 7,526 students failed the Common Entrance and there was an absence of institutions or programmes to cater for the needs of these children. In other areas of education, attempts at reform were evident. By 1993, there was the introduction of a nine month pre-service apprentice training programme (OJT) for persons desiring to enter the teaching profession. In 1994, the Minister of Education announced the implementation of a new system of continuous assessment in Sepetmber 1994-1995, (CAP-Continuous Assessment Programme) with the long-term objective of ending Common Entrance by 1999. The issues of social and class status seemed necessary for the education of children and suggest that there are unequal educational opportunities. This was reinforced by the findings of Dr. Rose Osuji, who discovered that students in the assisted schools were mainly from the upper class and achieved better results than middle class students attending Junior, Senior Comprehensive and Government schools. In October 1987, Eugenio Moore, Permanent Secretary to the Prime Minister, believed that the education system was elitist and catered for the top10% in society. Similar sentiments were echoed by Clifford Dyer, retired Senior Officer in the Ministry of Education, who identified education as being inherently elitist. A decade later, Basdeo Panday, the Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago identified the need to rectify the rural-urban divide in education. The writing was on the wall as educational practitioners levelled criticisms on the shortcomings of the education system. Esmond Ramesar and, Brother Michael Samuel (the principal of Presentation College, San Fernando), firmly believed the education system had failed the students. Allan McKenzie, former principal of Naparima College, expressed similar sentiments as he slammed the inadequacies of the school system in failing to prepare students for the world of work. One of the inherent problems facing a developing country is the division between schools in rural and urban areas. The example of Felicity revealed the factor of location being a major difference among schools in Trinidad and Tobago. The catchment areas for such schools in rural areas as Felicity, Inverness and Longdenville usually comprise lower income families. Middle income families in financially depressed areas might be able to afford to send their children to a school offering superior teaching services. Another gap between the rich and the poor are the 'extra lessons' that are given on evenings and weekends. Students unable to afford additional classes and desiring to succeed are forced to limit their extra-curricular activities to devote more time on their studies or often lag behind in classes. The competititve environment created in the denominational schools and the accompanying lifestyles of the majority of students, suggest that the class and income of parents is linked to the quality of education a child receives. The Presbyterian community made an attempt to ease the burdens of disadvantaged children. In 1997, eighteen students successful in the Common Entrance Examination and residing in the rural areas of Biche, Navet, Cush, Mitan, and RioClaro were awarded scholarships under the Moonsie Scholarship Awards. This annual scheme, organized by Dr. Franklin Moonsie, targets families living below the poverty line. By the late 1980s, the problems in leadership and management of educational resources intensified. The Junior Secondary, Senior Comprehensive and Composite schools were producing underachievers due to a lack of proper leadership and an environment not conducing to learning. A significant percntage of graduates from secondary schools were deemed to be semi-literate and this could have stemmed from the poor reading skills at the primary schools. This finding came as no surprise as a CSO report entitled "Report on Education Statistics 1993/1994" revealed that 10.7% or 20,948 primary school students were "scholastically retarded." The shortages of 200 principals and vice-principals added to the leadership problems facing the nation's schools. There were attempts to rectify some of these problems. In 1989, the public comments were aired at the National Consultation on Indiscipline in Schools at the Chaguaramas Convention Centre. Then, in 1993, principals and vice-principals were trained at the Learning Resource Centre in Couva to strengthen group managerial capability and improve their skills in human resource management. This year also witnessed the Government's National Task Force on Education (Green Paper) which outlined the methods that would be used to solve problems within the education system. Presbyterian schools were able to easily adapt amidst these historic changes and debates In this period, Presbyterian teachers in both primary and secondary schools possessed sufficient autonomy to join groups like the Trinidad and Tobago Unified Teachers' Association (TTUTA), National Parent Teacher Assocation, Primary Schools Principals Association, Secondary Schools Principals Association, the Presbyterian School Teachers' Association (PRESTA) and the Association of Retired Presbyterian Teachers. These bodies have empowered teachers to voice their concerns and dissatisfaction. At present, the Presbyterian Board of Education for Primary Schools, which is part of the Presbyterian Church's administration plays a major role in assisting the administration of schools. Some of the Board's responsibilities include interviewing prospective teachers, the placement of graduates from the Valsayn Teachers College, transferring of teachers and recommending to the Teaching Service Commission those teachers, based on qualification and performance, for promotion to positions of vice-principal and principal. Performing a similar function is the Presbyterian Secondary Schools' Board which interviews and recommends deserving individuals for promotion to administrative positions. In an environment with a physical presence of religion there are certain factors that enhance the achievements of the Presbyterian primary schools. There were attempts to offer Christian guidance and maintain a religious base for education at Presbyterian schools. In 1987, the Board of Christian Education planned to publish a booklet entitled The Presbyterian Teacher as a guide for Sunday School teachers and those employed in Presbyterian Primary and Secondary schools. Two years later, the Board of Christian Education published a hymn book targetting children in primary and Sunday schools. Also offering support to Christian education among laypersons was St. Andrew's Theological College which offered courses for Sunday School teachers. And in 1996 the Board, in collaboration with the Presbyterian Primary Schools Board held seminars, at various locations across Trinidad, for teachers in its 72 schools. The Presbyterian Church has ensured that both the annual Sunday School Rally and Vacation Bible School provide the forum for moulding young minds. In March 1996, Orlando Nagessar (then principal of San Juan Presbyterian School), shared some of the secrets of his school's success. The simple yet effective combination of diligent students and teachers had rippling effects throughout the school in both academic and extra-curricular activities. This 95- year-old institution remains one of the top schools in the north. In the last ten years (1986-1996), San Juan Presbyterian Primary School boasted of an average percentage of Common Entrance passes as high as 98%. Additionally, the institution's participation in competitions, organized by the Ministry of Education, non-governmental organizations and the Presbyterian Church reaped rewards as the school has consistently placed in the top five. The unique methods of disciplining students at San Juan Presbyterian through the use of the 'House System' and monthly staff meetings to monitor and motivate the teachers have added to the school's progress. Leadership and motivation of teachers has contributed significantly to upholding the reputation of a school. For instance, during the 1980s and early 1990s, the unsatisfactory performance of the Felicity Presbyterian School hampered it from competing equally with the nearby Government and Hindu schools. A change was evident under the leadership of Ruth Abdul as the school resumed its participation in extra-curruclar activities and displayed signs of an improved academic performance in the 1990s. Despite these positive changes under a new leadership, parents desiring a sound education for their children still opted for the Government and Hindu schools. Two retired principals of Presbyterian schools believe that administration is an influential factor in the success of Presbyterian educational institutions. Indra Ramsawak, (a retired principal) adheres to the belief that motivation and commitment of the teachers is transferred to the students thus producing outstanding results. Supportive of this viewpoint is Jit Ganeesingh, a retired school principal who taught at Presbyterian schools throughout Trinidad. Ganeesingh staunchly believes that the motivation of the staff is a crucial factor contributing to the overall success of the Presbyterian schools. Even though Presbyterian schools were providing yeoman service to the nation, few Presbyterians attended these institutions. For example, San Juan Presbyterian had a small number of students who were Presbyterians as each class had an average of five in a total thirty-five pupils. Other Presbyterian schools had an even smaller ratio of students in each class. For instance, in 1998, Felicity Presbyterian School recorded 16 Presbyterians from a total student population of 202. Likewise, Freeport Presbyterian (with a student population of 563) could muster an average of only 2 Presbyterians in the schools' 22 classes. It should be noted that the Presbyterian Church has no specific policy stating that a certain percentage of students entering its school must be Presbyterian. However, in cases of limited places, most principals give priority to children of Presbyterian families. The Presbyterian Church has suffered from criticism of its appointment and promotion of teachers at primary and secondary schools. Some the requirements include being baptized, active members for five years (including involvement in church activities) and communicants of the Presbyterian Church in Trinidad. Also, the 20% selection at Common Entrance which stemmed from the 40 year-old Concordat signed in 1960 generated some controversy. Like other denominational schools under the Concordat agreement, the 20% quota of children accepted must come from bonafide Presbyterian families recommended and approved by Local Boards and acknowledged by the residing Presbyterian minister. In order for a student to gain a place in the 20% allocation, the student must perform above the district's cut-off mark. After the Government has selected its 80% from a list in order of merit, the principals of denominational secondary schools are given the list for further selection. This policy of accepting students in denominational schools has spawned raging controversy and even accusations of corruption in the system. This has been immortalized by the calypsonian Western Rawlins (Cro Cro) with his Corruption in the Common Entrance. By 1991, other dissenting voices included the principal of Blackman's Private School who formed the group Citizens for Rights and Partiality in the Education System (CRIES) on the basis that, "the Concordat was discriminatory and violated the Education Act." Denominational schools responded by rejecting these charges of corruption in its method of selection and strongly defended the Concordat agreement. In 1995, another controversy surfaced, with respect to the placement of students in denominational schools. This emanated from a study conducted by the Centre for Ethnic Studies at the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine. The study involved a survey of 83,353 students in 100 schools throughout Trinidad and Tobago. The major findings were that the education system did not cater for rural areas, single parent families, lower class, and African females. One conclusion emanating from the report was that the Concordat was operating against the child of African descent which led to a further polarization of the two major races -Africans and East Indians. Statistics from the study conducted by the Centre for Ethnic Studies highlighted the denominational schools and the Concordat as discriminatory. In its Summary Report an analysis was made of the racial composition of selected students at the secondary level which revealed that generally more East Indian students (35.2%) than any other group (Mixed- 34.9%, African 20.8%) gained a secondary school place through the Concordat. Among the denominational schools, including Presbyterian schools, their selection of students was biased with a percentage of Africans 1.1%, Chinese 0.4%, Indians 78.9%, Mixed race 16.5%, Syrian Lebanese 1.1% and Whites 1.9%. The Chamber of Commerce came to the rescue of denominational schools as the organization argued that the Centre for Ethnic Studies used race as the dominant variable thereby portraying the denominational boards as deliberately practising racial discrimination. This controversy attracted the public's attention as the editorial of the Trinidad Guardian questioned race as a factor in children attending prestigious schools. One viewpoint contends that the history of denominational schools has proven they have contributed more to racial harmony than division. The emphasis on "race" in the Centre's study, accuses the Presbyterian Church of being prejudiced towards the selection of East Indians in its 20% system. But the Report failed to realize that if an overwhelming majority of East Indians are Presbyterians, then there would be greater likelihood of their selection in the 20% lists approved by Local Boards. Such debates generated concern among the Presbyterian community with its 40,000 members, even though they comprised only 3.4% of the population of Trinidad and Tobago. After more than 130 years of work in Trinidad, the Canadian Mission cannot be held responsible or be guilty of encouraging the segregation of the races. A strongly-worded defence came from the Presbyterian Church, in November 1994, in its monthly Trinidad Presbyterian, "any attempt to erode the excellence of our schools by democratizing crudely the placing of students will be an exercise in futility if not stupidity." There is some validity to this claim, especially by the Presbyterian Church which proudly maintains its academic excellence reminiscent of the struggles of the early educational pioneers from Canada. In March 1996, a former Chief Education Officer and an elder in the Curepe Presbyterian Church, Ken Seepersad voiced his concerns over the issue of the Concordat. Seepersad believed that discussions in the Minstry of Education were geared towards ensuring that there is a further deepening of the relationship between Church and the State and strongly feels that the Concordat agreement, though it determines to a certain extent the quality of education, has a safe and stable future in the education system of this country. The academic performance of the denominational schools seemingly justifies the apparent differences with the Government schools. The accusations and criticisms levelled at the denominational schools have neither affected nor undermined the reputation of the Presbyterian schools. A cursory examination of the examinations results of the Presbyterian secondary schools, particularly, the high pecentage of C.X.C and Advanced Level passes coupled with the consistency of producing scholarship winners would reveal a distinguished record. Naparima Boys has carved its niche in education. Its impressive record of scholarships include five scholarships between 1980-84, four in 1985 and 1986, five (including the President's Gold Medal) in 1987, three in 1988 and1989, seven in 1990 and three in 1991. Among the secondary schools a highly acclaimed performance has been attributed to a combination of high quality teaching, industrious students and inspirational leadership. At SAGHS, the principal (in 1985) has paid homage to the fact that there is, "no streaming, good teaching, non-stop motivating and endless praying." In 1986, SAGHS received 100% passes at the Advanced Level and over 90% passes at the Ordinary Level Examinations. Achieving a similar goal was Iere High School with 60% of the students receiving full certificates at Ordinary Level whilst at the Advanced Level a remarkable 90% of thestudents passed all their subjects. This commendable performance continued as St. Augustine Girls High School emerged at the top in the thirty best secondary schools in Trinidad and Tobago with an incredible pass rate (Grades 1 and 2) of 98.72 % at the C.X.C Examinations shared honours with Naparima Girls High School with its enviable record of 95.49%. Local history was created in 1989, when eleven girls won national scholarships at SAGHS. This was the first time in Trinidad and Tobago that a girls' school had achieved so many scholarships. Boys were not to be outdone and Hillview College also maintained a high academic standard. In 1995, this college boasted of a pass rate of 87% at the C.X.C Examinations and attained seven national scholarships based on the results of the Advanced Level Examinations. Trinidad and Tobago has acknowledged the profound ability of the Presbyterian schools to consistently produce outstanding scholars. The Sunday Guardian conducted an investigative report in 1995, on the basis of A-level results and ranked the top schools in each subject. Of the ten best secondary schools in Trinidad, the Presbyterian schools topped the list. In each subject area and at least two Presbyterian achieved a remarkable standing among the nation's ten best secondary schools. The Presbyterian schools excelled in 9 out of 12 subjects areas namely Biology, Chemistry, Geography, Management of Business, Mathematics, and Spanish. The examination results were reflective of the academic excellence reached by the Presbyterian schools. In the results of the 1996 Advanced Level Examinations, Pesbyterian schools won 23 of the 60 national scholarships. This remarkable trend continued in 1998 as Presbyterian schools gained 25 scholarships with SAGHS receiving ten, seven for Naparima, five for Naparima Girls and Hillview capturing three. Apart from academic divisions, the issue of discipline separated the denominational from Government schools. Among Presbyterian schools and to a large extent other denominational schools, there is a noticeable absence of violence. Measures to reduce problems of indiscipline were discussed the 1990s. The outbreak of gang fights, friction among the students and attacks against teachers were usually associated with Junior, Senior Comprehensive and Government schools. The disciplinary measures to be enforced fuelled debates as to the effectiveness and repercussions of such methods as flogging in seeking remedies to the problem of school indiscipline. In an attempt to curb the incidence of these problems, the Ministry of Education in 1999, realized the urgency of implementing recommendations of the "Task Force on Violence and Indiscipline in Schools." The principal of Hillview College, Richard Kokaram, associated with the college since 1966, and achieved principal status in 1989, humbly attributed his school's success to the positive learning environment created between teachers and students. Kokaram was quick to emphasize that Hillview College at its daily devotional exercises, attempts to increase the level of spirituality and consciousness of God among the young men to create better trained and morally sound graduates. The ability to balance the academic and extra-curricular dimension continues to be a hallmark of the Presbyterian schools. Hillview College has encouraged student participation with its organization of cricket, chess, karate, debating and essay competitions. Furthermore, the existence of an active steelband and introduction of a Student Broadcasting Radio Station in 1992, offers more opportunities for the student population. The school can boast of being victorious in the English Language National Essay Contest (1985), Trintoc Public Speaking (1986) and the Forestry Quiz (1987). At Hillview, the annually elected Student Council which provides an important forum for students to express their opinions. Additionally, the Council assists in maintaining discipline and representing students' interests. This contributes to empowering the students with skills of leadership and decision-making. This student body has extended a hand of welcome to nearby schools with its organization of the Inter-School Students Association (ISSA). The ISCF (referred to as the Hillview College Christian Fellowship) promotes Christian unity and brotherhood among students. In the 1980s, Hillview had made considerable progress in sports and has become worthy opponents in cricket and football. The vibrant student bodies coupled with the successes in various competitions have proven the abundance of talented and visionary students.